Oligosaccharides

<p>Tri-guluronic acid sodium salt (1,4-linked α-L-sodium guluronotriose) is one of a number of oligosaccharides obtained from alginate which is a polysaccharide in brown seaweeds containing: blocks of repeating mannuronic acid sequences (M-M-M-M etc), repeating guluronic acid sequences (G-G-G-G etc), and alternating M-G-M-G sequences. This oligosaccharide can be released by acid hydrolysis (Shimokawa, 1996) and a number of biological activities have been discussed in a recent review (Xing, 2020).</p>

Digalacturonic acid (DGA) (α-1,4 galacturonobiose), is derived from pectin or pectic acid, by enzymatic or partial acid hydrolysis. It is used in the co-crystallization of enzymes such as proteinase K. It is also used in galacturonic acid metabolism research as a substrate to identify, differentiate, and characterized endo- and exopolygalacturonase(s), and gluconase(s).

<p>1,3-a-1,6-a-D-Mannotriose 1-O-propylamine acetate salt is a modified oligosaccharide. It has been synthesized by the reaction of 1,3-a-1,6-a-D-mannopyranosyl bromide with proline amine acetate. This product is 98% pure and can be used as a complex carbohydrate in research or as a food additive. The CAS number for this product is 712092-14-8.</p>

Lactose-6'-phosphate is a sugar phosphate

Lipopolysaccharides are a heterogeneous group of molecules that include endotoxins, lipid A, and core oligosaccharide. They are released from the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria as a result of bacterial lysis. Lipopolysaccharides are potent activators of immune cells, inducing the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β). TNF-α is also known to induce the production of other pro-inflammatory cytokines including IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, and IL-12. Lipopolysaccharides have been shown to cause liver damage in animals by increasing plasma alanine aminotransferase levels. This may also be due to their ability to induce the production of malondialdehyde and c-reactive protein.

<p>Neutral octasasaccharide naturally present in human breast milk</p>

<p>Asialylated glycosphingolipid and precursor for ganglioside biosynthesis. The compound is a major glycosphingolipid in human neutrophils and is involved in the regulation of superoxides as well as nitric oxide. Moreover, lactosylceramide accumulates in atherosclerotic plaques and is also found elevated in familial hypercholesterolemia and polycystic kidney disease. Animal studies revealed that lactosylceramide induces hypertrophy in cardiomyocytes via signal transduction pathway that is oxygen-sensitive.</p>

<p>GD1b ganglioside (shown as ammonium salt) is one of the major gangliosides in neuronal and glial membranes. It has a core tetrasaccharide structure (Galβ1,3GalNAcβ1,4Galβ1,4Glc) with its two sialic acids linked α2,3/α2,8 to the inner galactose residue, and ceramide linked β to position 1 on the reducing terminal glucose residue (Ledeen, 2009). GD1b ganglioside acts as a receptor for BK virus, as well as for heat-labile LTII-a toxin, produced by enteropathogenic E. coli. GD1b ganglioside also interacts with tetanus neurotoxin (TeNT) and is crucial for its entry into cells (Kolter, 2012). The functional significance of ammonia in the brain is not yet fully understood: see (Modi 1994).</p>

Hyaluronic acid is a polysaccharide containing repeating disaccharide units of β-1,3-N-acetyl glucosamine and β-1, 4-glucuronic acid. A series of unsaturated oligosaccharides (oligouronic acids) are released from hyaluronic acid by the action of hyaluronidase on the umbilical cord (Weissman, 1954). This octasaccharide ammonium salt and other enzymatically produced polymer homologs have been of value in the study of hyaluronic acid metabolism in both healthy and diseased tissues (Hascall, 2019).

CO2-philic compound; used in pharmaceuticals and CO2-based processes

GM2 ganglioside (sodium salt) has a core trisaccharide structure (GalNAcβ1,4Galβ1,4Glc) with sialic acid linked α2,3 to the central galactose residue and ceramide linked β to position 1 on the reducing terminal glucose residue (Ledeen, 2009). GM2 ganglioside is present on neuronal cells and plays a key role in the regulation of dendritogenesis in cortical pyramidal neurons. In lysosomal storage disorders, such as, Tay-Sachs and Sandhoff disease, where hexosaminases A and B are deficient, GM2 ganglioside accumulates in the nervous system (Cachon-Gonzalez, 2018). GM2 ganglioside is also overexpressed in melanomas and other tumours of neuro-ecto origin (Yoshida, 2020). Moreover, the sugar moiety of the GM2 ganglioside is a receptor allowing the viral infection of cells with reovirus and rotavirus (Zhu, 2018).

Melezitose is a non-reducing trisaccharide that is produced by many plant sap-consuming insects, such as aphids (e.g. Cinara pilicornis).  Melezitose is a component of honeydew which acts as an attractant for ants and also as food for bees. Partial hydrolysis of melizitose releases glucose and turanose, an isomer of sucrose.

<p>2-Hydroxypropyl-b-cyclodextrin is a water-soluble drug that is chemically stable in aqueous media. It has been shown to be safe for use in the eye, with no significant side effects. 2-Hydroxypropyl-b-cyclodextrin has been shown to have anti-inflammatory properties and will not cause hemolytic activity. 2-Hydroxypropyl-b-cyclodextrin binds to retinoic acid receptors, which are found on cells of the corneal surface and in human spermatozoa. The binding of retinoic acid inhibits the production of enzymes that break down retinoids and prevents cell proliferation. This agent also interacts with other cellular components such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and hormones.</p>

Lacto-N-fucopentaose I-BSA is a Glycosylation, Oligosaccharide, sugar, Synthetic, Fluorination, Custom synthesis, Methylation, Monosaccharide, Polysaccharide, saccharide.

Ex starch-partial hydrolysis,food ingredient, moderatly sweet, easily digested

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are polysaccharides that are found in the extracellular matrix and on the surface of cells. GAGs consist of a linear chain of repeating disaccharide units, with one or more sugar molecules linked by a glycosidic bond. They have been shown to be important for the function and structure of tissues, including those in the gastrointestinal tract. GAGs have been shown to stimulate cellular growth, regulate inflammatory responses, and promote wound healing. They have also been shown to inhibit activity of polymorphonuclear leucocytes (PMN), which play an important role in inflammation. One type of GAG is dextran sulfate, which has been used as a biological scaffold for tissue engineering applications. Glycosaminoglycans may also play a role in regulating immune responses through interaction with toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4).

GM4-ganglioside (sodium salt) is a disaccharide of sialic acid linked α2,4 to galactose and ceramide linked β to position 1 on the galactose (Ledeen, 2009). Demyelinated plaques in multiple sclerosis have decreased amounts of GM4-ganglioside, localized in myelin and oligodendroglia of the central nervous system. It has been found that the myelin basic protein is capable of releasing large quantities of entrapped [14C]glucose from multilamellar liposomes containing GM4. If the conformation of GM4 ganglioside in liposomal membranes resembles that of GM4 ganglioside in its natural environment, basic protein and GM4 may be associated within the myelin sheath of the central nervous system and their interactions are altered in demyelinating diseases, such as, multiple sclerosis (Mullin, 1981).

<p>Produced by the reverse hydrolysis of a mannose substrate</p>

Fructo-octasaccharide (FOS) is a synthetic, high-purity carbohydrate that is used in the production of various food and beverage products. FOS is produced by enzymatic synthesis from sucrose and has been modified to include a fluorination step. FOS can be used as a sugar substitute and is found in many foods such as breads, beverages, yogurt, ice cream, candy, and chewing gum. FOS has been shown to stimulate the growth of beneficial bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract and may help promote healthy digestion.

<p>Lewis Y-PAA-biotin is a complex carbohydrate which is synthesized using Click chemistry. This compound has been modified to include a biotin moiety. Lewis Y-PAA-biotin has been shown to be resistant to enzymatic degradation and can be used as a saccharide in the synthesis of polysaccharides. Lewis Y-PAA-biotin is synthesized by attaching poly(acrylamide) (PAA) chains to the sugar moieties of Lewis Y. The carbonyl group on the PAA chains can be fluorinated, which makes it useful for click modification reactions with fluorinated compounds.</p>