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<p>Amylose is a polysaccharide chain in which D-glucosyl groups are linked by α-(1,4) glycosidic bonds. The determination of its content is of great significance for evaluating the nutritional value of food and investigating sugar metabolism in plants.</p>

<p>Cytochrome P450 enzymes are a group of enzyme systems that play an important role in the metabolism of exogenous substances, especially drugs and toxicants. Aminopyrine-N-demethylase (AND), as an important member of the P450 enzyme system, corresponds to the CYP3A4 subtype and is closely related to the demethylation of drugs.</p>

<p>Cytochrome P450 enzymes are a group of enzyme systems that play an important role in the metabolism of exogenous substances, especially drugs and toxicants. Aminopyrine-N-demethylase (AND), as an important member of the P450 enzyme system, corresponds to the CYP3A4 subtype and is closely related to the demethylation of drugs.</p>

<p>Anthocyanidin reductase is a key enzyme in the flavonoid synthesis pathway, playing a very important regulatory role in plants. Research on the regulatory mechanism of anthocyanidin reductase is beneficial to improving plant quality at the genetic level.</p>

<p>Anthocyanidin reductase is a key enzyme in the flavonoid synthesis pathway, playing a very important regulatory role in plants. Research on the regulatory mechanism of anthocyanidin reductase is beneficial to improving plant quality at the genetic level.</p>

<p>Anthocyanins are a class of natural pigments that are easily soluble in polar solvents and belong to flavonoids. They widely exist in the roots, stems, leaves, flowers and fruits of plants, giving them different colors from red to purple, and are the main coloring substances in plants.</p>

<p>Anthocyanins are a class of naturally occurring pigments that are easily soluble in polar solvents and belong to the flavonoid family. They are widely distributed in the roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits of plants, giving them colors ranging from red to purple. Anthocyanins are the primary pigments responsible for the coloration of plants.</p>

<p>Ascorbate Peroxidase (APX) is one of the important antioxidant enzymes for scavenging reactive oxygen species in plants, and also one of the key enzymes in ascorbate metabolism. APX has multiple isozymes, localized in the chloroplast, cytosol, mitochondria, peroxisomes and glyoxysomes, as well as the peroxisomal and thylakoid membranes. APX catalyzes the oxidation of AsA by H₂O₂ and is the main consumer of AsA in plants. The activity of APX directly affects the content of AsA, and there is a certain negative correlation between APX and AsA.</p>

<p>Ascorbate Peroxidase (APX) is one of the important antioxidant enzymes for scavenging reactive oxygen species in plants, and also one of the key enzymes in ascorbate metabolism. APX has multiple isozymes, localized in the chloroplast, cytosol, mitochondria, peroxisomes and glyoxysomes, as well as the peroxisomal and thylakoid membranes. APX catalyzes the oxidation of AsA by H₂O₂ and is the main consumer of AsA in plants. The activity of APX directly affects the content of AsA, and there is a certain negative correlation between APX and AsA.</p>

<p>Ascorbic Acid (AsA), among other functions, are also known as Vitamin C, acts as a coenzyme, free radical scavenger, electron donor/acceptor, and substrate for the biosynthesis of oxalate and tartrate. As the most important antioxidant in plant cells, AsA plays a crucial role in protecting chloroplasts from oxidative damage and is also an important indicator for measuring the quality of agricultural products.</p>

<p>Ascorbic Acid (AsA), among other functions, are also known as Vitamin C, acts as a coenzyme, free radical scavenger, electron donor/acceptor, and substrate for the biosynthesis of oxalate and tartrate. As the most important antioxidant in plant cells, AsA plays a crucial role in protecting chloroplasts from oxidative damage and is also an important indicator for measuring the quality of agricultural products.</p>

<p>Ascorbate oxidase (AAO) is a copper-containing enzyme located in the cytoplasm or bound to the cell wall. Ascorbate oxidase plays an important role in material metabolism within plants. It is not only related to plant growth, development,fruit storage, it is also associated with anti-aging. Catalyzed by ascorbate oxidase, molecular oxygen can oxidize ascorbic acid to dehydroascorbic acid, which can be reduced by cytochrome b on the plasma membrane. The transmembrane transport of electrons in this process can promote cell growth.</p>

<p>Ascorbate oxidase (AAO) is a copper-containing enzyme located in the cytoplasm or bound to the cell wall. Ascorbate oxidase plays an important role in material metabolism within plants. It is not only related to plant growth, development,fruit storage, it is also associated with anti-aging. Catalyzed by ascorbate oxidase, molecular oxygen can oxidize ascorbic acid to dehydroascorbic acid, which can be reduced by cytochrome b on the plasma membrane. The transmembrane transport of electrons in this process can promote cell growth.</p>

<p>Asparagine synthase (AS) is a type of aminotransferase widely found in living organisms, which catalyzes the transfer of an amino group from glutamine to aspartic acid; the formation of asparagine is a detoxification reaction when plants are under ammonia toxicity.</p>

<p>Asparagine synthase (AS) is a type of aminotransferase widely found in living organisms, which catalyzes the transfer of an amino group from glutamine to aspartic acid; the formation of asparagine is a detoxification reaction when plants are under ammonia toxicity.</p>

<p>Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is widely present in animals, plants, microorganisms, and cultured cells. Functioning as a coenzyme, it improves body metabolism and participates in the metabolism of fats, proteins, sugars, nucleic acids, and nucleotides, serving as the primary source of biological energy. The energy charge is a key parameter describing cellular energy metabolism status. Measuring ATP content and calculating energy charge can reflect the state of energy metabolism.</p>

<p>Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is widely found in animals, plants, microorganisms, and cultured cells. It is a coenzyme that improves body metabolism, participates in the metabolism of fats, proteins, sugars, nucleic acids, and nucleotides within the body, and is the main source of biological energy. The Energy Charge is a key parameter describing the state of cellular energy metabolism. Measuring ATP content and calculating the Energy Charge can reflect the state of energy metabolism.</p>

<p>Invertase (Ivr) catalyzes the irreversible decomposition of sucrose into fructose and glucose.It is one of the key enzymes of sucrose metabolism in higher plants. Based on optimal pH, invertases in higher plants are divided into two types: acid invertase (AI) and neutral invertase (NI).The optimal pH for Acid invertase (AI) is 3-5. AI is divided into two types: soluble acid invertase (S-AI) and cell wall-bound insoluble acid invertase (B-AI). B-AI exists in the intercellular space and is bound to the cell wall. It is primarily involved in the breakdown of sucrose during apoplastic unloading in the phloem to maintain the sucrose concentration gradient between source and sink.</p>

<p>Invertase (Ivr) catalyzes the irreversible decomposition of sucrose into fructose and glucose.It is one of the key enzymes of sucrose metabolism in higher plants. Based on optimal pH, invertases in higher plants are divided into two types: acid invertase (AI) and neutral invertase (NI).The optimal pH for Acid invertase (AI) is 3-5. AI is divided into two types: soluble acid invertase (S-AI) and cell wall-bound insoluble acid invertase (B-AI). B-AI exists in the intercellular space and is bound to the cell wall. It is primarily involved in the breakdown of sucrose during apoplastic unloading in the phloem to maintain the sucrose concentration gradient between source and sink.</p>

<p>Betaine is a quaternary ammonium water-soluble alkaloid widely distributed in animals, plants, and microorganisms. It is an oxidation product of choline within organisms. Betaine can enhance immunity, reduce blood lipids, act as an antioxidant, and combat tumors. It can also serve as a methyl donor, participating in and promoting animal protein and fat metabolism, improving appetite, mitigating stress, regulating osmotic pressure, stabilizing vitamins, among other biological functions. It has relatively wide applications in the chemical, pharmaceutical, and food additive industries.</p>

<p>Betaine is a quaternary ammonium water-soluble alkaloid widely distributed in animals, plants, and microorganisms. It is an oxidation product of choline within organisms. Betaine can enhance immunity, reduce blood lipids, act as an antioxidant, and combat tumors. It can also serve as a methyl donor, participating in and promoting animal protein and fat metabolism, improving appetite, mitigating stress, regulating osmotic pressure, stabilizing vitamins, among other biological functions. It has relatively wide applications in the chemical, pharmaceutical, and food additive industries.</p>

<p>Magnesium is an activator for various enzymes, such as phosphatases, creatine kinase, hexokinase, and carboxylases. Magnesium is also an essential element for the structure of macromolecules like DNA, RNA, and ribosomes. It is a crucial element for maintaining normal nerve and muscle function. Deviations of serum magnesium concentration from the normal range are associated with certain kidney and endocrine diseases.</p>

<p>Magnesium is an activator for various enzymes, such as phosphatases, creatine kinase, hexokinase, and carboxylases. Magnesium is also an essential element for the structure of macromolecules like DNA, RNA, and ribosomes. It is a crucial element for maintaining normal nerve and muscle function. Deviations of serum magnesium concentration from the normal range are associated with certain kidney and endocrine diseases.</p>

<p>Blood Phosphorus primarily refers to inorganic phosphorus in the blood, which exists in the form of inorganic phosphates. The concentrations of calcium and phosphorus in plasma are closely related. When expressed in mg/dL, the product of their concentrations ([Ca]×[P]) is 30-40. If ([Ca]×[P]) &gt; 40, calcium and phosphorus are deposited as bone salt in bone tissue; if ([Ca]×[P]) &lt; 35, bone calcification is hindered, and bone salt may even dissolve, affecting bone formation. The relative stability of blood calcium and phosphorus levels depends on the balance between the absorption/excretion of calcium and phosphorus and the metabolism of calcification and decalcification. This balance is regulated by hormones such as Vitamin D3, parathyroid hormone, and calcitonin.</p>

<p>Blood phosphorus primarily refers to inorganic phosphorus in the blood, existing in the form of inorganic phosphate salts. The concentrations of calcium and phosphorus in plasma are closely related. When expressed in mg/dL, their product ([Ca]×[P]) ranges from 30 to 40. When ([Ca]×[P]) &gt; 40, calcium and phosphorus tend to deposit as bone salts in bone tissue; if ([Ca]×[P]) &lt; 35, bone calcification is hindered, potentially leading to bone salt dissolution and affecting bone formation. The relative stability of blood calcium and phosphorus levels depends on the balance between calcium/phosphorus absorption and excretion, and the metabolic balance between calcification and decalcification. This balance is regulated by hormones such as Vitamin D3, parathyroid hormone, and calcitonin.</p>

<p>Urea is the end product of the breakdown of nitrogen-containing compounds in living organisms and is decomposed into ammonia under the catalysis of urease. Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) is one of the main indicators of kidney function.</p>

<p>Urea is the end product of the breakdown of nitrogen-containing compounds in living organisms and is decomposed into ammonia under the catalysis of urease. Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) is one of the main indicators of kidney function.</p>

<p>Exo-β-1,4-glucanase / Cellobiohydrolase (C1) (EC 3.2.1.91) is found in bacteria, fungi, and animals and is one of the components of the cellulase enzyme system. C1 catalyzes the release of cellobiose and glucose from the non-reducing ends of polysaccharide chains.</p>

<p>Exo-β-1,4-glucanase / Cellobiohydrolase (C1) (EC 3.2.1.91) is found in bacteria, fungi, and animals and is one of the components of the cellulase enzyme system. C1 catalyzes the release of cellobiose and glucose from the non-reducing ends of polysaccharide chains.</p>

<p>Cinnamate-4-hydroxylase (C4H) is predominantly found in higher plants, yeast, and fungi. This enzyme catalyzes the hydroxylation of cinnamic acid to produce 4-coumarate and is the second key enzyme in the phenylpropanoid pathway, following L-phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL).</p>

<p>Cinnamate-4-hydroxylase (C4H) is predominantly found in higher plants, yeast, and fungi. This enzyme catalyzes the hydroxylation of cinnamic acid to produce 4-coumarate and is the second key enzyme in the phenylpropanoid pathway, following L-phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL).</p>

<p>Ca²⁺Mg²⁺-ATPase is widely distributed in plants, animals, microorganisms, and cells, where it catalyzes the hydrolysis of ATP to produce ADP and inorganic phosphate.</p>

<p>Ca²⁺Mg²⁺-ATPase is widely distributed in plants, animals, microorganisms, and cells, where it catalyzes the hydrolysis of ATP to produce ADP and inorganic phosphate.</p>

<p>Cinnamyl-alcohol dehydrogenase (CAD) is one of the key enzymes in the lignin biosynthetic pathway, catalyzing the final step in the synthesis of lignin monomers. It catalyzes the reduction of various cinnamaldehydes (such as coumaraldehyde, sinapaldehyde, and coniferaldehyde) to their corresponding cinnamyl alcohols. This enzyme is predominantly found in higher plants, yeast, and fungi. Research on this enzyme can help elucidate the metabolic mechanisms of lignin deposition during the development of various biological cells, providing a basis for reducing stone cell content in fruits and improving their quality.</p>

<p>Cinnamyl-alcohol dehydrogenase (CAD) is one of the key enzymes in the lignin biosynthetic pathway, catalyzing the final step in the synthesis of lignin monomers. It catalyzes the reduction of various cinnamaldehydes (such as coumaraldehyde, sinapaldehyde, and coniferaldehyde) to their corresponding cinnamyl alcohols. This enzyme is predominantly found in higher plants, yeast, and fungi. Research on this enzyme can help elucidate the metabolic mechanisms of lignin deposition during the development of various biological cells, providing a basis for reducing stone cell content in fruits and improving their quality.</p>

<p>Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the human body and is an important intracellular element responsible for regulating numerous cellular processes. Calcium exists either as free ions or bound in complexes, such as the calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate complexes that form bone tissue. Many physiological processes, including muscle contraction, cell adhesion, hormone/neurotransmitter release, glycogen metabolism, cell proliferation/differentiation, blood coagulation, nerve or synaptic impulse transmission, and the structural support of bones, are regulated by calcium signaling. Deficiencies in the integrity of cell-specific calcium signaling systems may be associated with certain human diseases.</p>

<p>Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the human body and is an important intracellular element responsible for regulating numerous cellular processes. Calcium exists either as free ions or bound in complexes, such as the calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate complexes that form bone tissue. Many physiological processes, including muscle contraction, cell adhesion, hormone/neurotransmitter release, glycogen metabolism, cell proliferation/differentiation, blood coagulation, nerve or synaptic impulse transmission, and the structural support of bones, are regulated by calcium signaling. Deficiencies in the integrity of cell-specific calcium signaling systems may be associated with certain human diseases.</p>

<p>Carboxylesterase (CaEs, CarE, EC 3.1.1.1) is a multigene family. Its gene products are localized in the endoplasmic reticulum of various tissues and are widely distributed in tissues and organs, belonging to the serine hydrolase family. Carboxylesterases can effectively catalyze the hydrolysis of ester and amide compounds but cannot catalyze the hydrolysis of acetylcholine and its analogs. CarE is involved in the detoxification and metabolism of various drugs, environmental toxins, and carcinogens, Carboxylesterase also participates in lipid transport and metabolism.</p>

<p>Carboxylesterase (CaEs, CarE, EC 3.1.1.1) is a multigene family. Its gene products are localized in the endoplasmic reticulum of various tissues and are widely distributed in tissues and organs, belonging to the serine hydrolase family. Carboxylesterases can effectively catalyze the hydrolysis of ester and amide compounds but cannot catalyze the hydrolysis of acetylcholine and its analogs. CarE is involved in the detoxification and metabolism of various drugs, environmental toxins, and carcinogens, Carboxylesterase also participates in lipid transport and metabolism.</p>

<p>Catalase (CAT) (EC 1.11.1.6) is widely present in animals, plants, microorganisms, and cultured cells. It is the primary enzyme responsible for clearing H₂O₂ and plays a crucial role in the reactive oxygen species scavenging system.</p>

<p>Catalase (CAT) (EC 1.11.1.6) is widely present in animals, plants, microorganisms, and cultured cells. It is the primary enzyme responsible for clearing H₂O₂ and plays a crucial role in the reactive oxygen species scavenging system.</p>

<p>Cellulase (CL) (EC 3.2.1.4) is found in bacteria, fungi, and animals. It catalyzes the degradation of cellulose and is a type of enzyme preparation widely used in medicine, food processing, cotton textile industry, environmental protection, and utilization of renewable resources.</p>

<p>Cellulase (CL) (EC 3.2.1.4) is found in bacteria, fungi, and animals. It catalyzes the degradation of cellulose and is a type of enzyme preparation widely used in medicine, food processing, cotton textile industry, environmental protection, and utilization of renewable resources.</p>

<p>Cellulose is a macromolecular polysaccharide composed of glucose. It is usually bound with hemicellulose, pectin, and lignin, serving as the main structural component of plant cell walls. As an important dietary fiber, cellulose is the most widely distributed and abundant polysaccharide in nature.</p>

<p>Cellulose is a macromolecular polysaccharide composed of glucose. It is usually bound with hemicellulose, pectin, and lignin, serving as the main structural component of plant cell walls. As an important dietary fiber, cellulose is the most widely distributed and abundant polysaccharide in nature.</p>

<p>Ceruloplasmin (Cp) is a copper-containing protein in plasma that functions in copper transport. It also exhibits oxidase activity and acts as an important antioxidant in extracellular fluids.</p>

<p>Ceruloplasmin (Cp) is a copper-containing protein in plasma that functions in copper transport. It also exhibits oxidase activity and acts as an important antioxidant in extracellular fluids.</p>

<p>Chalcone isomerase (CHI) is the first recognized enzyme involved in the synthesis of flavonoids and is one of the key enzymes in the flavonoid metabolic pathway. Together with chalcone synthase, it constitutes the rate-limiting enzyme for the biosynthesis of flavonoids.</p>

<p>Chalcone isomerase (CHI) is the first recognized enzyme involved in the synthesis of flavonoids and is one of the key enzymes in the flavonoid metabolic pathway. Together with chalcone synthase, it constitutes the rate-limiting enzyme for the biosynthesis of flavonoids.</p>

<p>Chitin is primarily found in the exoskeletons of crustaceans such as shrimp and crabs, the shells of insects, the organs of mollusks (such as squid cartilage), and the cell walls of fungi. Chitinase (EC 3.2.1.14) catalyzes the hydrolysis of chitin and plays a role in defending against fungal infections, making it a major research focus in the study of antifungal disease resistance.</p>

<p>Chitin is primarily found in the exoskeletons of crustaceans such as shrimp and crabs, the shells of insects, the organs of mollusks (such as squid cartilage), and the cell walls of fungi. Chitinase (EC 3.2.1.14) catalyzes the hydrolysis of chitin and plays a role in defending against fungal infections, making it a major research focus in the study of antifungal disease resistance.</p>

<p>Plant chlorophyll is widely present in the tissues of green plants. Its content is closely related to photosynthesis and nutritional status, serving as an important indicator of plant growth conditions.</p>

<p>Chlorophyll is widely present in green plant tissues. Its content is closely related to photosynthesis and nutritional status, making it an important indicator of plant growth conditions.</p>

<p>Chloroplasts are the most important and ubiquitous plastids in plant cells, serving as organelles for photosynthesis. Chloroplasts utilize their chlorophyll to convert light energy into chemical energy, transforming CO₂ and water into sugars. They represent the world's lowest-cost, highest-yielding biological factories in terms of material production. The accurate and comprehensive isolation of chloroplasts with preserved normal activity has become a prerequisite for many research studies.</p>

<p>Chymotrypsin, also known as pancreatic chymotrypsin, is a proteolytic enzyme secreted by the pancreas that rapidly breaks down denatured proteins. Its function is similar to that of trypsin, but it offers advantages such as strong decomposing ability, low toxicity, and minimal adverse effects. Clinically, chymotrypsin is used for sputum liquefaction, effective for both purulent and non-purulent sputum, as well as for promoting wound healing after trauma or surgery, such as cataract extraction.</p>

<p>Chymotrypsin, also known as pancreatic chymotrypsin, is a proteolytic enzyme secreted by the pancreas that rapidly breaks down denatured proteins. Its function is similar to that of trypsin, but it offers advantages such as strong decomposing ability, low toxicity, and minimal adverse effects. Clinically, chymotrypsin is used for sputum liquefaction, effective for both purulent and non-purulent sputum, as well as for promoting wound healing after trauma or surgery, such as cataract extraction.</p>

<p>Chloroplasts are the most important and ubiquitous plastids in plant cells, serving as organelles for photosynthesis. Chloroplasts utilize their chlorophyll to convert light energy into chemical energy, transforming CO₂ and water into sugars. They represent the world's lowest-cost, highest-yielding biological factories in terms of material production. The accurate and comprehensive isolation of chloroplasts with preserved normal activity has become a prerequisite for many research studies.</p>

<p>Citric Acid (CA), also known as citrate, is an important organic acid commonly found in living organisms,it is an significant food flavoring substance. Additionally, CA is a product formed in the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle when an acetyl group from acetyl-CoA is added to oxaloacetate.</p>

<p>Citric Acid (CA), also known as citrate, is an important organic acid commonly found in living organisms,it is an significant food flavoring substance. Additionally, CA is a product formed in the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle when an acetyl group from acetyl-CoA is added to oxaloacetate.</p>

<p>Carnitine palmitoyltransferase (CPT-1) is a type of acyltransferase located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. It reversibly catalyzes the transfer of an acyl group from acyl-CoA to L-carnitine and plays a crucial role in transporting fatty acids across the inner mitochondrial membrane.</p>

<p>Carnitine palmitoyltransferase (CPT-1) is a type of acyltransferase located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. It reversibly catalyzes the transfer of an acyl group from acyl-CoA to L-carnitine and plays a crucial role in transporting fatty acids across the inner mitochondrial membrane.</p>

<p>Creatine Kinase (CK) (EC 2.7.3.2), also known as creatine phosphokinase, is primarily found in tissues such as the heart, muscles, and brain. It reversibly catalyzes the transphosphorylation reaction between creatine and ATP, it is an important kinase directly involved in cellular energy metabolism, muscle contraction, and ATP regeneration.</p>

<p>Creatine Kinase (CK) (EC 2.7.3.2), also known as creatine phosphokinase, is primarily found in tissues such as the heart, muscles, and brain. It reversibly catalyzes the transphosphorylation reaction between creatine and ATP, it is an important kinase directly involved in cellular energy metabolism, muscle contraction, and ATP regeneration.</p>

<p>Citrate Synthase (CS) (EC 2.3.3.1) is a mitochondrial enzyme found in all cells capable of oxidative metabolism. It catalyzes the synthesis of citrate from oxaloacetate in the Krebs tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. CS is involved in energy production, lipogenesis, and cholesterol synthesis, and its activity follows a circadian rhythm. The Citrate Synthase Activity Assay Kit is used to measure CS activity in various tissues, cell cultures (adherent or suspension), and purified mitochondria.</p>

<p>Citrate Synthase (CS) (EC 2.3.3.1) is a mitochondrial enzyme found in all cells capable of oxidative metabolism. It catalyzes the synthesis of citrate from oxaloacetate in the Krebs tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. CS is involved in energy production, lipogenesis, and cholesterol synthesis, and its activity follows a circadian rhythm. The Citrate Synthase Activity Assay Kit is used to measure CS activity in various tissues, cell cultures (adherent or suspension), and purified mitochondria.</p>

<p>Cysteinyl sulfoxide lyase (CSL), commonly known as alliinase, is widely found in Allium genus plants of the Liliaceae family (such as garlic and onions), Brassica genus plants of the Brassicaceae family (such as cabbage, cauliflower, and broccoli), and Acacia genus plants of the Fabaceae family. Lentinic acid is converted into lenthionine under the action of γ-glutamyl transpeptidase and cysteinyl sulfoxide lyase, producing pyruvate, acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, and NH₃. CSL is one of the key enzymes in endogenous formaldehyde production, and measuring its activity is of great significance for food safety research.</p>

<p>Cysteinyl sulfoxide lyase (CSL), commonly known as alliinase, is widely found in Allium genus plants of the Liliaceae family (such as garlic and onions), Brassica genus plants of the Brassicaceae family (such as cabbage, cauliflower, and broccoli), and Acacia genus plants of the Fabaceae family. Lentinic acid is converted into lenthionine under the action of γ-glutamyl transpeptidase and cysteinyl sulfoxide lyase, producing pyruvate, acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, and NH₃. CSL is one of the key enzymes in endogenous formaldehyde production, and measuring its activity is of great significance for food safety research.</p>

<p>Pectin is a major component of the primary cell wall and middle lamella, primarily consisting of protopectin, pectin methyl ester, and pectic acid. Pectin contains galacturonic acid, lactose, arabinose, glucuronic acid, making it the most abundant polysaccharide in the cell walls of many higher plants. Its unique physical and chemical properties influence the taste and quality of plant-based foods. Pectin molecules are cross-linked via Ca²⁺ bridges, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, glycosidic bonds, ester bonds, and phenyl ring couplings. Various extraction methods can yield different forms of pectin, such as water-soluble pectin (WSP), ion-bound pectin (ISP), and covalently bound pectin (CSP).</p>

<p>Pectin is a major component of the primary cell wall and middle lamella, primarily consisting of protopectin, pectin methyl ester, and pectic acid. Pectin contains galacturonic acid, lactose, arabinose, glucuronic acid, making it the most abundant polysaccharide in the cell walls of many higher plants. Its unique physical and chemical properties influence the taste and quality of plant-based foods. Pectin molecules are cross-linked via Ca²⁺ bridges, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, glycosidic bonds, ester bonds, and phenyl ring couplings. Various extraction methods can yield different forms of pectin, such as water-soluble pectin (WSP), ion-bound pectin (ISP), and covalently bound pectin (CSP).</p>

<p>Endo-β-1,4-glucanase (EC 3.2.1.4), present in bacteria, fungi, and animals, is a major component of the cellulase system. Classified under the former Cx category, it primarily acts on amorphous cellulose and water-soluble cellulose derivatives, randomly hydrolyzing glycosidic bonds to break them down into glucose, cellobiose, cellotriose, and other oligomers.</p>

<p>Endo-β-1,4-glucanase (EC 3.2.1.4), present in bacteria, fungi, and animals, is a major component of the cellulase system. Classified under the former Cx category, it primarily acts on amorphous cellulose and water-soluble cellulose derivatives, randomly hydrolyzing glycosidic bonds to break them down into glucose, cellobiose, cellotriose, and other oligomers.</p>

<p>Cytochrome P450 enzymes are a group of isoenzymes mainly found in the liver, playing a significant role in the metabolism of xenobiotics, particularly drugs and toxins. Cytochrome P450 and cytochrome b5 (CYB5) are two hemoproteins in the P450 enzyme system, and changes in their ratio are closely related to P450 metabolic activity.</p>

<p>Cytochrome P450 enzymes are a group of isoenzymes mainly found in the liver, playing a significant role in the metabolism of xenobiotics, particularly drugs and toxins. Cytochrome P450 and cytochrome b5 (CYB5) are two hemoproteins in the P450 enzyme system, and changes in their ratio are closely related to P450 metabolic activity.</p>

<p>Proteins contain three sulfur-containing amino acids: methionine, cystine, and cysteine (Cys). Among them, Cys is the only sulfur-containing amino acid with a sulfhydryl group. It is derived from methionine and can interconvert with cystine. Cys participates in the formation of disulfide bonds in proteins, often serving as a component of the active site, and provides sulfhydryl groups for other physiological and biochemical reactions. Additionally, Cys accumulates extensively on the skin and mucosal surfaces, maintaining the activity of important sulfhydryl enzymes in keratin production and replenishing sulfhydryl groups to support normal skin metabolism. It also regulates the production of basal melanin by pigment cells in the innermost layer of the epidermis, contributing to effects such as skin whitening, detoxification, and improvement of inflammatory and allergic skin conditions.</p>

<p>Proteins contain three sulfur-containing amino acids: methionine, cystine, and cysteine (Cys). Among them, Cys is the only sulfur-containing amino acid with a sulfhydryl group. It is derived from methionine and can interconvert with cystine. Cys participates in the formation of disulfide bonds in proteins, often serving as a component of the active site, and provides sulfhydryl groups for other physiological and biochemical reactions. Additionally, Cys accumulates extensively on the skin and mucosal surfaces, maintaining the activity of important sulfhydryl enzymes in keratin production and replenishing sulfhydryl groups to support normal skin metabolism. It also regulates the production of basal melanin by pigment cells in the innermost layer of the epidermis, contributing to effects such as skin whitening, detoxification, and improvement of inflammatory and allergic skin conditions.</p>

<p>Starch debranching enzyme (DBE) specifically cleaves the α-1,6 glycosidic bonds of amylopectin, producing linear glucose chains. It plays an important role in adjusting the chain length of amylopectin molecules.</p>

<p>Starch debranching enzyme (DBE) specifically cleaves the α-1,6 glycosidic bonds of amylopectin, producing linear glucose chains. It plays an important role in adjusting the chain length of amylopectin molecules.</p>

<p>Dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR) is present in the cytoplasm, mitochondria, and chloroplasts. DHAR catalyzes the reduction of dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) by glutathione (GSH) to produce ascorbic acid (AsA) and oxidized glutathione (GSSG), regulating the cellular AsA/DHA ratio. It is a key enzyme in the ascorbate-glutathione redox cycle. Enhancing DHAR activity in plants can increase AsA content in plant-based foods, thereby improving their nutritional quality.</p>

<p>Dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR) is present in the cytoplasm, mitochondria, and chloroplasts. DHAR catalyzes the reduction of dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) by glutathione (GSH) to produce ascorbic acid (AsA) and oxidized glutathione (GSSG), regulating the cellular AsA/DHA ratio. It is a key enzyme in the ascorbate-glutathione redox cycle. Enhancing DHAR activity in plants can increase AsA content in plant-based foods, thereby improving their nutritional quality.</p>

<p>Dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) is the oxidized form of ascorbic acid (Vitamin C, AsA). AsA serves as an important physiological indicator in plant cells. Changes in AsA content, redox status (AsA/DHA ratio), and the activity of enzymes related to its synthesis and metabolism are involved in plant responses to a range of environmental stresses. DHA is the reversible oxidized form of AsA. Within organisms, DHA and ascorbic acid together constitute a redox system, functioning as an electron acceptor.</p>

<p>Dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) is the oxidized form of ascorbic acid (Vitamin C, AsA). AsA serves as an important physiological indicator in plant cells. Changes in AsA content, redox status (AsA/DHA ratio), and the activity of enzymes related to its synthesis and metabolism are involved in plant responses to a range of environmental stresses. DHA is the reversible oxidized form of AsA. Within organisms, DHA and ascorbic acid together constitute a redox system, functioning as an electron acceptor.</p>

<p>Dehydrogenase (DH) is a type of enzyme that catalyzes redox reactions. It catalyzes the oxidation of substrates via the cytochrome system, releasing energy for use by the organism, which is one way organisms obtain energy.</p>

<p>Dehydrogenase (DH) is a type of enzyme that catalyzes redox reactions. It catalyzes the oxidation of substrates via the cytochrome system, releasing energy for use by the organism, which is one way organisms obtain energy.</p>

<p>Diamine Oxidase (DAO; EC 1.4.3.6) is widely present in animals (intestinal mucosa, lungs, liver, kidneys, etc.), plants, and microorganisms. It catalyzes the oxidation of polyamines into aldehydes. Its activity is closely related to nucleic acid and protein synthesis. DAO can reflect the integrity and extent of damage to the intestinal mechanical barrier.</p>

<p>Diamine oxidase (DAO; EC 1.4.3.6) is widely found in animals (intestinal mucosa, lungs, liver, kidneys, etc.), plants, and microorganisms. It catalyzes the oxidation of polyamines into aldehydes. Its activity is closely related to nucleic acid and protein synthesis and can reflect the integrity and extent of damage to the intestinal mechanical barrier.</p>

<p>Cytochrome P450 enzymes are a group of enzymes primarily located in the liver. They play a crucial role in the metabolism of xenobiotics, particularly drugs and toxins. Erythromycin N-demethylase (ERND) corresponds to the CYP2B subtype within the P450 enzyme system and is closely associated with the demethylation involved in drug metabolism. CYP2B can detoxify by catalyzing substrates into inactive metabolites that are easily excreted, but it can also metabolically activate certain drugs.</p>

<p>Cytochrome P450 enzymes are a group of enzymes primarily located in the liver. They play a crucial role in the metabolism of xenobiotics, particularly drugs and toxins. Erythromycin N-demethylase (ERND) corresponds to the CYP2B subtype within the P450 enzyme system and is closely associated with the demethylation involved in drug metabolism. CYP2B can detoxify by catalyzing substrates into inactive metabolites that are easily excreted, but it can also metabolically activate certain drugs.</p>

<p>Alcoholic beverages are collectively referred to as "jiu" in Chinese, containing alcohol (ethanol). Ethanol is the main component of alcoholic beverages and is one of the important indicators for measuring their quality. China is the country that first invented brewing in the world and is also a major consumer of alcoholic products, with consumption leading the world. Therefore, the rapid and accurate determination of ethanol content in alcoholic beverages is of great significance for ensuring their quality and protecting consumer health.</p>

<p>Alcoholic beverages are collectively referred to as "jiu" in Chinese, containing alcohol (ethanol). Ethanol is the main component of alcoholic beverages and is one of the important indicators for measuring their quality. China is the country that first invented brewing in the world and is also a major consumer of alcoholic products, with consumption leading the world. Therefore, the rapid and accurate determination of ethanol content in alcoholic beverages is of great significance for ensuring their quality and protecting consumer health.</p>

<p>Fatty Acid Synthase (FAS) is a key enzyme in fatty acid synthesis, catalyzing the formation of long-chain fatty acids from acetyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA. FAS is commonly expressed in various tissue cells and is abundantly expressed in mammalian liver, kidney, brain, lung, mammary gland, and adipose tissue.</p>

<p>Fatty Acid Synthase (FAS) is a key enzyme in fatty acid synthesis that catalyzes the formation of long-chain fatty acids from acetyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA. FAS is widely expressed in various tissue cells and shows abundant expression in mammalian liver, kidney, brain, lung, mammary gland, and adipose tissue.</p>

<p>Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase (FBP), also known as fructose-1,6-diphosphatase, catalyzes the hydrolysis of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate and water to produce fructose-6-phosphate and inorganic phosphate. It plays a critical role in gluconeogenesis and the synthesis of sucrose from photosynthetic assimilates.</p>

<p>Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase (FBP), also known as fructose-1,6-diphosphatase, catalyzes the hydrolysis of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate and water to produce fructose-6-phosphate and inorganic phosphate. It plays a critical role in gluconeogenesis and the synthesis of sucrose from photosynthetic assimilates.</p>

<p>Ferric-chelate reductase (FCR) catalyzes the reduction of Fe³⁺ to Fe²⁺ in ferric chelates, playing a significant role in iron absorption in certain species.</p>

<p>Ferric-chelate reductase (FCR) catalyzes the reduction of Fe³⁺ to Fe²⁺ in ferric chelates, playing a significant role in iron absorption in certain species.</p>

<p>The hydrolysis reaction of Soil-Fluorescein Diacetate (S-FDA) effectively reflects changes in microbial activity and soil quality, as well as the transformation of organic matter in ecosystems. It is one of the important biological indicators in soil quality research.</p>

<p>Cellulase is a multi-component enzyme system produced by microorganisms that hydrolyzes cellulose β-1,4-glycosidic bonds to produce glucose. Filter Paper Activity (FPA) refers to the hydrolysis of filter paper to generate reducing sugars. FPA reflects the total enzyme activity resulting from the synergistic action of three hydrolytic enzymes: exoglucanase, endoglucanase, and β-glucosidase, which form an inducible complex enzyme system. Studying FPA is highly significant for cellulase research.</p>

<p>Cellulase is a multi-component enzyme system produced by microorganisms that hydrolyzes cellulose β-1,4-glycosidic bonds to produce glucose. Filter Paper Activity (FPA) refers to the hydrolysis of filter paper to generate reducing sugars. FPA reflects the total enzyme activity resulting from the synergistic action of three hydrolytic enzymes: exoglucanase, endoglucanase, and β-glucosidase, which form an inducible complex enzyme system. Studying FPA is highly significant for cellulase research.</p>

<p>Glutamic Acid (Glu) is widely found in animals, plants, microorganisms, and cultured cells. It is not only one of the 20 amino acids that make up proteins but also participates in the synthesis of various amino acids through transamination, serving as a major source of amino groups in organisms. Furthermore, Glu is the primary active component of monosodium glutamate (MSG), commonly used as a food additive and in flavor production.</p>

<p>Glutamic Acid (Glu) is widely found in animals, plants, microorganisms, and cultured cells. It is not only one of the 20 amino acids that make up proteins but also participates in the synthesis of various amino acids through transamination, serving as a major source of amino groups in organisms. Furthermore, Glu is the primary active component of monosodium glutamate (MSG), commonly used as a food additive and in flavor production.</p>