Monosaccharides

The chemical structure of Astragalus polysaccharide is complex and consists of an α-D-(1,4)-Glc and (1,6)-α-D-Glcp backbone, and a branch point at O-6. The molecular weight is approximately 3.01 × 105 Da from Mongolian Astragalus using low concentration of ethanol for precipitation and gel chromatography for purification. Spectral analysis results of 1H NMR and 13C NMR showed that the polysaccharide backbone has a 1,3-linked β-D-Gal residue and the branched portion has β-Glc, 1,6-linked α-Gal; 1,5-linked β-Xyl; 1,4-linked β-Gal; β-D-Gal, 1,2-linked α-Rha; and 1,2,4-linked α-Rha residues.

Fucose (Fuc, 6-deoxy L-galactose) has a methyl group at C6 in place of a hydroxyl group and this gives the molecule a greater degree of hydrophobicity than galactose (Collins, 2006). L-fucose is found in fucoidan, a polysaccharide that occurs in the brown seaweeds (Phaeophyceae) (Percival, 1967). Fucose is also a key component in many mammalian N- and O-linked glycans, glycolipids, blood group substances and Lewis antigens (Becker, 2003). In human milk, neutral (fucosylated) oligosaccharides (HMO) contain fucose at the terminal position (e.g. 2’ -fucosyllactose and lactodifucopentaose). They represent 35% to 50% of the total HMO content and many in vitro studies suggest that HMOs directly modulate immune responses, acting either locally on cells of the mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues or systemically to inhibit the expression of inflammatory genes, mainly cytokines (Plaza-Diaz, 2018).

The glucuronidation of 1-O-(trans-3-hydroxycotinine)-b-D-glucuronide ammonium salt is mediated by the enzyme UDP-glucuronosyltransferase. This reaction is catalyzed by the transfer of a glucuronic acid residue from UDP-glucuronic acid to a hydroxyl group on the side chain of 1-O-(trans-3-hydroxycotinine)-b-D-glucuronide ammonium salt. The kinetic analysis of human urine samples has shown that this reaction is significant. This metabolite can be detected in urine samples using next generation sequencing and its concentration can be used as an indicator for the consumption of tobacco or nicotine containing products. Epidemiological studies have shown that this metabolite has significant effects on cancer risk. Genotyping and genotype studies have shown that this metabolite is responsible for genetic polymorphisms that are associated with increased cancer risk.

Emodin is a natural product that can be extracted from the rhizome of Curcuma aromatica, a chinese herb. It has been shown to have neuroprotective effects in animal studies and has been used as an adjuvant in the treatment of cervical cancer. Emodin also inhibits the replication of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1). Emodin is also active against microbial infection, including bacterial infections, such as those caused by Staphylococcus aureus, and viral infections, such as influenza A virus. The main mechanism of action of emodin is its inhibition of DNA synthesis by binding to viral dna or bacterial rna polymerase. Emodin has also been found to inhibit protein synthesis by binding to ribosomes. This drug binds to urea nitrogen molecules in bacteria and disrupts their growth by inhibiting protein synthesis.

Estradiol 3-sulfate 17b-glucuronide dipotassium salt is an estradiol ester that is a metabolite of estradiol. It has been shown to be an intermediate in the synthesis of estrone sulfate and other steroid hormones. Estradiol 3-sulfate 17b-glucuronide dipotassium salt is formed from estradiol by the addition of one molecule of sulfuric acid followed by the addition of glucuronic acid, which results in a salt form. It may also be formed by oxidation of allylic hydroperoxides and photooxygenation in families with oxygenated moieties. Irradiation leads to formation of oxygenated steroids. The alkene reactivity depends on the substitution pattern, the cyclic reactivity depends on the ring size and substitution pattern, and the reactivity with peroxides depends on the position of substitution.