Antimicrobials

<p>Second-generation lipoglycopeptide antibiotic</p>

<p>Cytarabine is a pyrimidine nucleoside analogue that is used to treat leukaemia especially, non-lymphocytic leukaemia. This drug also has anti-viral and immunosuppressant properties. Cytarabine is cytotoxic and acts through direct DNA damage. Although its mechanism of action is not fully understood, it is said to inhibit DNA polymerase.</p>

<p>C-390 is an antibacterial agent. Selective isolation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa from other bacterial species when added to an agar medium.</p>

<p>Ceftibuten dihydrate is a third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic with action on bacterial cell wall synthesis and is used for treating respiratory tract infections, otitis media, and urinary tract infections.</p>

<p>Tobramycin used to treat severe infections with gram-negative bacteria and it is often applied in combination with beta-lactams. It has similar antimicrobial effects to gentamicin and is effective against all Enterobacteriacae, but more effective than gentamicin against P. aeruginosa, which is why it is often used for gentamicin-resistant strains, especially in the case of cystic fibrosis.</p>

<p>Antiviral; Hepatitis C virus NS5A antagonist</p>

<p>Antibiotic; used in selective media for P. aeruginosa</p>

<p>Ceftolozane sulfate is a cephalosporin antibiotic with action against multidrug-resistant gram-negative bacteria and is used for treating complicated urinary tract infections and intra-abdominal infections.</p>

<p>Inhibitor of glucan synthase; antifungal compound</p>

<p>Oritavancin is a semi-synthetic lipoglycopeptide antibiotic that inhibits bacterial cell wall synthesis by binding to the D-alanyl-D-alanine moiety of peptidoglycan precursors. It has been shown to be active against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Clostridium perfringens. Oritavancin also inhibits the growth of thp-1 cells in vitro and has been shown to be effective against endocarditis caused by MRSA.</p>

<p>STAADIUM™ GalactoZide II is a targeted inhibitor for β-galactosidase producing bacteria. The antibacterial activity of STAADIUM™ GalactoZide II is triggered by the enzyme β-galactosidase which is produced by E.coli (EHEC), thermophilic lactic acid bacteria, and other coliform bacteria. STAADIUM™ GalactoZide II can help to selectively inhibit the growth of E. coli in complex bacterial cultures and can be used in microbiome studies, food control, environmental safety, hygiene, and clinical diagnostics. STAADIUM™ GalactoZide II is not compatible with some experimental conditions, e.g. pH indicators such as neutral red, indigo stains, and possibly H2S staining. STAADIUM™ GalactoZide II can be added as an enzyme-specific selective supplement to agar plates and as an enrichment agent to broth culture.</p>

<p>STAADIUMTM PeptiZide L-Ala is a targeted inhibitor for L-alanine aminopeptidase-producing bacteria. The antibacterial activity of STAADIUMTM PeptiZide L-Ala is triggered by the enzyme L-alanine aminopeptidase, an enzyme located in the bacterial cell wall and is a characteristic of Gram-negative bacteria. L-alanine aminopeptidase has not been experimentally detected in Campylobacter species, anaerobic bacilli, Gram-positive and Gram-variable bacteria. More details in the application notes document.</p>

<p>Sulbactam sodium is a beta-lactamase inhibitor with action on bacterial beta-lactamase enzymes and is used for enhancing the efficacy of beta-lactam antibiotics.</p>

<p>Alvespimycin hydrochloride is a chemical inhibitor that binds and inhibits the ATP-binding site of Hsp90, an enzyme involved in protein synthesis. This inhibition prevents the release of other proteins that are needed for protein synthesis, leading to cell death. Alvespimycin hydrochloride has been shown to have anti-cancer properties in vitro assays. Alvespimycin hydrochloride is a semi-synthetic derivative of the antibiotic geldanamycin</p>

<p>Anthelmintic; anti-parasitic</p>

<p>Tobramycin is used to treat severe infections with gram-negative bacteria and it is often applied in combination with beta-lactams. It has similar antimicrobial effects to gentamicin and is effective against all Enterobacteriacae, but more effective than gentamicin against P. aeruginosa, which is why it is often used for gentamicin-resistant strains, especially in the case of cystic fibrosis.</p>

<p>Penicillin G sodium is a natural penicillin antibiotic with action on bacterial cell wall synthesis and is used for treating bacterial infections such as pneumonia, gonorrhea, and anthrax.</p>

<p>Non-nucleoside inhibitor of reverse transcriptase; anti-viral</p>

<p>Biapenem is a carbapenem antibiotic and is used for the treatment of bacterial infections. It inhibits bacterial cell wall synthesis by binding to penicillin-binding proteins.</p>

<p>Membrane pore-forming agent; H+, K+, Pb2+ ionophore; polyether antibiotic</p>

<p>Maduramicin ammonium is an anticoccidial agent with action on protozoal parasites by disrupting ion gradients and is used for preventing coccidiosis in poultry.</p>

<p>Inhibitor of protein synthesis; aminoglycoside</p>

<p>Anti-viral; NS3/4A protease inhibitor_x000D_</p>

<p>Oleandomycin phosphate is a macrolide antibiotic with action on bacterial protein synthesis inhibition and is used for treating respiratory tract infections and as a veterinary antibiotic.</p>

<p>STAADIUM™ GalactoZide I is a targeted inhibitor for β-galactosidase producing bacteria. The antibacterial activity of STAADIUM™ GalactoZide I is triggered by the enzyme β-galactosidase which is produced by E.coli (EHEC), thermophilic lactic acid bacteria, and other coliform bacteria. STAADIUM™ GalactoZide I can help to selectively inhibit the growth of E. coli in complex bacterial cultures and can be useful in microbiome studies, food control, environmental safety, hygiene, and clinical diagnostics. GalactoZide I has a slightly lower inhibitory activity on coliforms compared to STAADIUM™ GalactoZide II but has a higher compatibility with pH indicators, e.g. neutral red and H2S staining.</p>

<p>Ceftaroline fosamil acetate hydrate is a fifth-generation cephalosporin antibiotic with action against gram-positive bacteria, including MRSA and is used for treating bacterial skin infections and community-acquired pneumonia.</p>

<p>Anti-fungal; glucan synthase inhibitor</p>

<p>Antibiotic; binds bacterial ribosomes to inhibit protein synthesis</p>

<p>Naturally produced by the soil bacterium Streptomyces avermitili, it is clinically used in the treatment of parasitosis in both humans and animals. Ivermectin is commercially available as a mixture of 80% 22, 23-dihydroavermectin B1a and 20% 22, 23-dihydroavermectin B1b. In 2020, Ivermectin indicated that it was a good antiviral agent in the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 and a new mechanism of action has been suggested. Ivermectin would act on importin α/β heterodimer and affect nuclear transport and the translocation of viral proteins.</p>

<p>Hexadecylphosphocholine, better known as miltefosine, belongs to the group of phospholipids. The long alkyl chain and a polar group of a molecule proved to be essential for antitumor activity, especially to cure breast cancer cells. The apoptotic process takes place in the plasma membrane, where molecules are inserted and then influence signaling pathways. Moreover, during preclinical studies hexadecylphosphocholine (He-PC) found to be highly effective in inhibiting the growth of chemically induced rat mammary carcinomas, and even a high percentage of the tumors regressed completely. The He-PC has many more applications such as antifungal agent, antiprotozoal drug, protein kinase inhibitor or immunomodulator. Even though miltefosine was originally developed in the 1980s as an anti-cancer agent, new studies have demonstrated activity against Leishmania parasites and neoplastic cells, and due to broad spectrum of antimicrobial effects, it is recommended as a first line treatment for free-living amebae infections.</p>

<p>Colistin sodium methanesulfonate is an antibiotic, which is a derivative of polymyxin E sourced from the bacterium Paenibacillus polymyxa. Its mode of action involves disrupting the bacterial cell membrane by interacting with lipopolysaccharides and phospholipids, leading to cell death.</p>

<p>**Ivermectin 8α-hydroperoxide** is a derivative of the antiparasitic agent ivermectin, which is synthesized through chemical modification. Ivermectin originally derives from the fermentation products of the bacterium *Streptomyces avermitilis*. The modification to form 8α-hydroperoxide involves the addition of a hydroperoxide group, potentially altering its biological properties.</p>

<p>Sarafloxacin hydrochloride is a fluoroquinolone antibiotic with action on bacterial DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV and is used for treating bacterial infections in veterinary medicine.</p>

<p>Difloxacin is a bactericidal, broad-spectrum, fluroquinolone antibiotic which is active against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. By interfering with the bacterial enzyme DNA gyrase, which is necessary for the upkeep and synthesis of bacterial DNA, it causes an antibacterial impact. It is used for the treatment of many bacterial infections including skin infections.</p>

<p>Fluconazole is an antifungal drug used to treat a wide range of fungal infections. Fluconazole is a cytochrome demethylase system inhibitor that acts by interfering with β-glucan biosynthesis. It has been shown to be effective in treating candidemia, a life-threatening form of candidiasis caused by the fungus Candida albicans. Fluconazole seems to be more effective than amphotericin B in treating some isolates of C. albicans, making it a valuable tool in the fight against this deadly fungal infection, although due to the increase of antimicrobial resistance, fluconazole has been studied in combination with other drugs (e.g. farnesol).</p>

<p>Efavirenz is a non-nucleoside-based reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) of the reverse transcriptase of HIV-1. It inhibits the viral enzyme reverse transcriptase by binding to its active site. In certain cell culture assays, Efavirenz showed great efficiency when inhibiting wild-type HIV-1 replication. In the treatment of HIV, Efavirenz has been studied in combination with Emtricitabine and Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate for ease of administration in some clinical studies. Recent in vitro cell studies indicated Efavirenz is a potential treatment for pancreatic, prostate and triple-negative breast cancers due to its cytotoxicity against cancer cells.Efavirenz is part of our Bio-X ™ Range. These products are aimed at life science researchers who need high quality ready to use products for assay development, screening or other R&amp;D work. With a solubility datasheet and convenient vials, all of our Bio-X ™ products are in stock across our global warehouses for rapid delivery and ease of use.</p>

<p>Kanamycin B is a broad spectrum antibiotic active against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, often used to treat eye infections. Compared to Kanamycin A, it exhibits stronger interaction with the acidic phospholipids.</p>

<p>Anhydro chlortetracycline HCl is an antibiotic and is used for the treatment of bacterial infections. It binds to the 30S ribosomal subunit, inhibiting protein synthesis</p>

<p>Ketolide; binds bacterial ribosomes and inhibits translation</p>

<p>Mezlocillin sodium is a sodium salt form of mezlocillin with similar action and applications as mezlocillin.</p>

<p>Metronidazole is a nitroimidazole antibiotic with action on anaerobic bacteria and protozoa by disrupting DNA synthesis and is used for treating infections like bacterial vaginosis, trichomoniasis, and certain parasitic infections.</p>

<p>Inhibitor of protein synthesis; glycylcycline class</p>

<p>A broad-spectrum antibiotic of macrolide class which targets 50S ribosome subunit and inhibits protein synthesis. Azithromycin is a semi-synthetic acid-stable derivative of erythromycin. In vitro, azithromycin is more efficient than erythromycin in some Gram-negative organisms such as Haemophilus influenzae, Haemophilus parainfluenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Borrelia burgdorferi.</p>

<p>Trimethoprim is a diaminopyrimidine antibiotic with action on bacterial folate synthesis inhibition and is used for treating urinary tract infections and respiratory infections.</p>

<p>Ofloxacin is a fluoroquinolone antibiotic with action on bacterial DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV and is used for treating bacterial infections like pneumonia, urinary tract infections, and skin infections.</p>

<p>9-Deoxo-9a-aza-9a-homo erythromycin A is a semi-synthetic macrolide antibiotic, which is derived from the naturally occurring antibiotic erythromycin. This compound is structurally modified to enhance its pharmacokinetic properties and antibacterial spectrum. By altering the erythromycin molecule, 9-Deoxo-9a-aza-9a-homo erythromycin A introduces a nitrogen atom into the lactone ring, thereby modifying its interaction with bacterial ribosomes.</p>

<p>Ampicillin sodium is a broad-spectrum antibiotic, which is a semisynthetic derivative of penicillin. It is sourced from the natural fermentation products of Penicillium fungi, followed by chemical modification. Ampicillin functions by inhibiting bacterial cell wall synthesis. This is achieved through the irreversible binding to penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), which play a crucial role in constructing the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls. This interruption of cell wall synthesis leads to cell lysis and ultimately the death of the bacteria.</p>

<p>A β-lactam antibiotic of monobactam subclass, which targets peptidoglycan synthesis in bacterial cell wall. Aztreonam is effective against Gram-negative aerobic bacteria and is more resistant to β-lactamases than other β-lactam antibiotics.</p>

<p>Phleomycin HCl is an antibiotic compound derived from *Streptomyces verticillus*, which is known for its robust DNA-cleaving activity. As an antibiotic, it functions primarily by inducing breaks in DNA strands, thereby inhibiting DNA replication and transcription processes. This mechanism of action is particularly effective in targeting rapidly dividing cells, making Phleomycin a valuable tool in molecular biology.</p>

<p>Dalbavancin is a lipoglycopeptide antibiotic with action against gram-positive bacteria, including MRSA and is used for treating acute bacterial skin and skin structure infections.</p>

<p>EIDD 2801 is an orally bioavailable prodrug of β-D-N4-hydroxycytidine and was shown to inhibit SARS-CoV-2 replication in human airway epithelial cells. EIDD 2801 was also tested in mice infected with SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV viruses. EIDD 2801 targets the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) and reduces virus titer and improved pulmonary function in experimental animals when used in prophylactic and therapeutic regime.</p>

<p>Darunavir is an HIV protease inhibitor that is used in the treatment of HIV-1 infection. This drug inhibits HIV-1 protease from binding and catalyzing by attaching to the enzyme and preventing HIV replication.</p>

<p>A broad-spectrum antibiotic of macrolide class, which inhibits 50S ribosomal subunit and inhibits protein synthesis. Spiramycin is also effective against Gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria as well as protozoal parasite Toxoplasma gondii.</p>

<p>Binds cyclophilin D and inhibits calcineurin; immunosuppressant</p>

<p>Inhibitor of bacterial cell wall biogenesis; cephalosporin</p>

<p>Desfuroyl ceftiofur sodium is a veterinary cephalosporin antibiotic, which is derived from cephalosporin C, a beta-lactam antibiotic produced by the fungus Cephalosporium acremonium. Its mode of action involves the inhibition of bacterial cell wall synthesis by binding to and inactivating penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs). This prevents the cross-linking of peptidoglycan layers, leading to cell lysis and bacterial death, particularly effective against Gram-negative and some Gram-positive bacteria.</p>

<p>Neomycin EP impurity C (Neomycin C) trifluoroacetate is a reference standard, which is a meticulously characterized chemical impurity often used in pharmaceutical analysis. This compound is derived from the fermentation of *Streptomyces fradiae*, which produces a complex mixture of aminoglycoside antibiotics, including Neomycin B and Neomycin C.</p>

<p>Lactoferrin is a multifunctional glycoprotein, which is primarily sourced from bovine milk, human milk, and other mammalian secretions. With its high affinity for iron, lactoferrin sequesters iron ions, which inhibits bacterial growth by depriving them of the iron necessary for proliferation. This mechanism enables lactoferrin to exhibit potent antimicrobial properties.</p>

<p>Validoxylamine A is an antibiotic, which is a secondary metabolite produced by certain strains of the Actinomyces species. It functions as a potent inhibitor of the enzyme glucose isomerase, which plays a crucial role in the isomerization of glucose to fructose, an important biochemical reaction in various microbial and plant systems.</p>

<p>Enduracidin hydrochloride is an antimicrobial compound, which is a lipopeptide antibiotic derived from the genus Streptomyces, specifically Streptomyces fungicidicus or Streptomyces roseosporus. The compound exerts its antimicrobial activity by inhibiting the synthesis of bacterial cell walls, primarily targeting the lipid II cycle, a critical precursor in the peptidoglycan synthesis pathway. This inhibition disrupts the construction of peptidoglycan layers, ultimately leading to bacterial cell lysis and death.</p>

<p>Galidesivir dihydrochloride is an investigational antiviral drug, which is a synthetic nucleoside analogue with broad-spectrum activity. It is derived from a modified adenosine analog structure, targeting viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerases. Galidesivir functions through the incorporation into viral RNA, leading to premature termination of RNA synthesis, effectively inhibiting viral replication. This mechanism aligns with its utility in combating various RNA viruses.</p>

<p>Vulgamycin is a novel antibiotic, which is derived from a specific strain of soil bacteria belonging to the genus *Streptomyces*. This microorganism is known for its prolific secondary metabolite production, enabling the development of unique compounds with therapeutic potential. Vulgamycin operates by inhibiting bacterial cell wall synthesis, a mechanism of action that targets key enzymatic pathways, resulting in effective bactericidal activity against a wide range of Gram-positive bacteria.</p>

<p>Dolutegravir sodium is an HIV integrase strand transfer inhibitor with action on HIV integrase to block viral replication and is used for treating HIV/AIDS in combination with other antiretroviral medications.</p>

<p>9’-Deoxy-8’,8’-dihydroxyherbicidin is a specialized compound, classified as an antibacterial agent and secondary metabolite, which is naturally derived from microbial sources, specifically certain strains of actinomycetes. These microorganisms are prolific producers of bioactive secondary metabolites, including antibiotics and herbicidins, which exhibit diverse biological activities.</p>

<p>Adefovir is an antiviral drug that is used for the treatment of hepatitis B infections. This drug works by blocking the enzyme reverse transcriptase, therefore preventing the replication of the virus in the body.</p>

<p>Herbicidin H is a naturally occurring microbial herbicide, which is derived from specific strains of soil-borne bacteria. This compound is primarily isolated from Streptomyces species, known for their prolific production of various bioactive secondary metabolites. The mode of action of Herbicidin H involves the disruption of essential cellular processes within plant cells, particularly affecting nucleic acid synthesis. This disruption leads to impaired growth and eventual plant death, making it a potent agent against a range of undesirable plant species.</p>

<p>A derivative of azithromycin, used as an antibiotic</p>

<p>This product is part of our Bio-X ™ Range. These products are aimed at life science researchers who need high quality ready-to-use products for assay development, screening or other R&amp;D work. With a solubility datasheet and convenient vials, all of our Bio-X ™ products are in stock across our global warehouses for rapid delivery and ease of use.</p>

<p>This product is part of our Bio-X ™ Range. These products are aimed at life science researchers who need high quality ready-to-use products for assay development, screening or other R&amp;D work. With a solubility datasheet and convenient vials, all of our Bio-X ™ products are in stock across our global warehouses for rapid delivery and ease of use.</p>

<p>Santonin is a terpenoid compound with action as an anthelmintic by paralyzing parasitic worms and is used for expelling intestinal worms.</p>

<p>2-Methyl-4-isothiazolin-3-one is a biocidal agent, which is a synthetic compound derived from isothiazolinone chemistry. Its primary mode of action involves the inhibition of microbial cell growth by disrupting essential enzyme systems within the cells, leading to cell death. This compound is often supplied as a 50% aqueous solution, facilitating its integration into different mediums.</p>

<p>Ribavirin is a guanosine nucleoside analog with broad-spectrum antiviral properties. Ribavirin gets phosphorylated to ribavirin triphosphate in cells and competes with natural nucleotides for incorporation in a nascent RNA chain, thus interfering with RNA synthesis by inhibiting viral RNA polymerases. Ribavirin is also an inhibitor of inosinate dehydrogenase (IMP), which is involved in the biosynthesis of GTP.</p>

<p>2-[(2-Amino-6-oxo-3H-purin-9-yl)methoxy]ethyl (2S)-2-aminopropanoate is a nucleotide analog, a synthetic compound designed to mimic the structure of natural nucleotides incorporated into DNA. It is derived from chemical synthesis to specifically interfere with viral DNA replication. The compound acts by selectively inhibiting viral DNA polymerase, an enzyme essential for the replication of viral genetic material. This inhibition effectively halts the proliferation of the virus, rendering it unable to reproduce within the host cell.</p>

<p>Gentamicin B is an aminoglycoside antibiotic, which is derived from the bacterium Micromonospora. This derivative exhibits its mode of action by binding to the 30S subunit of the bacterial ribosome, disrupting protein synthesis. As a result, it causes misreading of mRNA, ultimately leading to cell death, thereby exhibiting bactericidal effects.</p>

<p>Oxiconazole is an anti-fungal agent that is used for the treatment of various dermatophyte infections. It can be used to treat athlete’s foot, ringworm and jock itch. This drug inhibits ergosterol biosynthesis and acts to destabilize the fungal cytochrome enzyme P450 51. Additionally, this drug has shown to inhibit DNA synthesis and suppress concentrations of ATP.</p>

<p>Fengycin A analogue is an antifungal lipopeptide, which is a cyclic compound derived from microbial sources, specifically produced by Bacillus subtilis strains. It functions primarily by disrupting the cell membranes of pathogenic fungi, leading to altered membrane permeability and subsequent cell death. The unique structure of fengycin allows it to interact with membrane lipids, compromising membrane integrity and inhibiting fungal growth.</p>

<p>Carbomycin is a macrolide antibiotic, which is derived from the bacterium Streptomyces halstedii. This antibiotic functions by binding to the 50S ribosomal subunit, thereby inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis. Through this mechanism, carbomycin effectively disrupts the growth and replication of susceptible bacterial strains, making it a potent tool in combating bacterial infections.</p>

<p>Cefditoren acid sodium is an antibacterial agent that belongs to the class of third-generation cephalosporins, which is derived from Acremonium fungus and produced through chemical synthesis. This compound acts by inhibiting bacterial cell wall synthesis, leading to cell lysis and death. It achieves this by binding to specific penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) located inside the bacterial cell wall. The interruption of peptidoglycan synthesis in the cell wall is crucial for maintaining bacterial cell integrity, and its inhibition results in the bactericidal activity of cefditoren acid sodium. It is effective against a range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The key applications of this compound include the treatment of bacterial infections such as respiratory tract infections, skin infections, and other conditions caused by susceptible bacteria. Its spectrum of activity and pharmacokinetic properties make it suitable for situations where third-generation cephalosporins are indicated. Understanding the specific interaction with PBPs and the resistance mechanisms is crucial for optimizing its clinical use and managing antibiotic resistance.</p>

<p>Ampicillin is a β-lactam antibiotic with a broad spectrum of activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. It is used in the treatment of bacterial infections, including those caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Listeria monocytogenes. Ampicillin binds to penicillin-binding proteins in the bacterial cell wall by competitive inhibition. It prevents the formation of an antibiotic-inhibitor complex with the enzyme cell wall synthesis that is required for cell wall biosynthesis, inhibiting protein synthesis and cell division.</p>

<p>Cefatrizine is a broad-spectrum antibiotic, which is a semisynthetic cephalosporin derived from cephalosporin C, a natural product originating from the fungus Acremonium chrysogenum. It exerts its mode of action through the inhibition of bacterial cell wall synthesis, a critical component for bacterial growth and replication. Specifically, cefatrizine targets and binds to penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) located inside the bacterial cell wall, leading to the inhibition of peptidoglycan synthesis. This disruption results in cell lysis and ultimately bacterial cell death.</p>

<p>Amphotericin B is a macrocycle antibiotic with very potent antifungal effects and resistance very rarely occurs. Amphotericin B is a polyene antifungal that binds to fungal cell membrane, i.e., ergosterol disrupts the membrane permeability leading to leakage of intracellular components. It is often used as an alternative therapy for leishmaniasis and to treat severe mycoses including: systemic Candida, Cryptococcus, blastomycosis, and histoplasmosis.</p>

<p>Cidofovir is an anti-viral agent that is used to treat Cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis in patients with AIDS. This drug suppresses CMV replication by inhibiting viral DNA synthesis.</p>

<p>Taurine derivative; used to prevent infection in catheters</p>

<p>Tubulin ligand which promotes microtubule assembly and stabilises microtubule cytoskeleton against depolymerisation. The compound has anti-tumoral activity since its interference with cytoskeleton dynamics affects the assembly of mitotic spindle, segregation of chromosomes, cell division and blocks the cell cycle in G1 or M phase. The compound is also used for the purification of tubulin or microtubule-associated proteins.</p>

<p>Clevudine-d4 is a deuterium-labeled analog of the nucleoside analogue clevudine, which is a synthetic antiviral compound. It is derived from chemical synthesis, specifically designed for research purposes involving the metabolic and pharmacokinetic pathways of clevudine. Clevudine-d4 acts as an inhibitor of the hepatitis B virus (HBV) by interfering with the viral DNA polymerase. It incorporates into viral DNA, leading to chain termination during HBV replication.</p>

<p>Terbinafine is an antifungal drug that is used in the treatment of dermatophyte infections of the toenails and fingernails. Terbinafine also treats other skin infections. This drug works by inhibiting ergosterol synthesis which in return inhibits fungal squalene monooxygenase. This results in a disruption of fungal cell wall synthesis.</p>

<p>rec beta-Defensin 2 (human) is a recombinant peptide, which is a human-derived antimicrobial protein. It is sourced through recombinant DNA technology, enabling the production of a synthetic version of the natural peptide found in epithelial cells. Its mode of action involves disrupting microbial cell membranes, leading to cell lysis, in addition to modulating the immune response by interacting with immune cells and enhancing the production of cytokines.</p>

<p>Bleomycin is an antineoplastic antibiotic, which is derived from the bacterium *Streptomyces verticillus*. Its mode of action involves binding to DNA and inducing strand breaks through the generation of free radicals, particularly in regions rich in guanine and cytosine. This leads to inhibition of DNA synthesis and, consequently, cellular replication, making it effective in targeting rapidly dividing cancer cells.</p>